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Mauri Compass
Toolkit and Platform
Principal Authors
  • Riaki Ruru
  • Logan Bertram
  • Ian Ruru
"This by far was one of the best wānanga I have had the pleasure of attending. You and your whānau did an amazing job of facilitating the space - it was engaging but not overwhelming and easy to follow."

— Anna-Marei Kurei
Table of Contents
Executive Summary & Overview
  • Executive Summary
  • Foundational Principles
Framework & Alignment
  • Alignment with Te Whakatōhea Worldview and Values
  • Te Mana o te Wai and the Whakatōhea Settlement Act
  • Whakatōhea Kaitiaki Forum
  • Alignment with Whakatōhea Kaitiaki Forum
  • Cultural Values Statement
  • Primary Cultural Values
Policy Integration
  • Policy and Planning Alignment
  • Integration with Regional Plans
  • Coastal Environment Plan Integration
Catchment Assessments
  • Mauri Compass Catchment Assessments
  • Waioweka Catchment
  • Environmental Pressures
  • Ōtara River
  • Historical Modification
  • Waiōtahe Catchment
  • Future Assessments
Historical Context
  • Whakatōhea Waterways: Environmental Change and Impact Assessment 1883-2025
  • Detailed Chronological Timeline of Environmental Changes
  • Mid-Century Infrastructure Period (1950-1980)
  • Research Foundation
Hōtaka Whakangungu: Te Reo Māori
  • Bilingual Resources
  • Training Components
  • Te Reo Hōtaka Whakangungu
  • Te Taiao o te Mauri Compass
  • Ngā Tahuhu o te Tuna
  • Ngā Momo Tuna o Aotearoa
  • Te Taiao o te Tuna
  • Ngā Wāhanga o Roto
  • Te Raina Roa o te Tuna
  • Ngā Ritenga Kai o te Tuna
  • Ngā Taiao Tipu Pai me ngā Mate
  • Mahinga Kai me te Haumarutanga
Climate Adaptation, Resilience and Implications for Coastal Iwi
  • Climate Adaptation, Resilience and Implications for Coastal Iwi
  • Contents Overview
  • Implications for Coastal Iwi in Aotearoa
  • Introduction to the UAE Framework
  • Expert-Led Development Process
  • Comprehensive Indicator Framework
  • Template Structure and Components
  • Dramatic Indicator Refinement
  • Target Distribution Overview
  • Adaptation Cycle Integration
  • Indigenous Knowledge Integration
Thematic Targets
  • Water Supply and Sanitation Focus
  • Food and Agriculture Systems
  • Health Impacts and Services
  • Ecosystems and Biodiversity Conservation
  • Infrastructure and Human Settlements
  • Poverty Eradication and Livelihoods
  • Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Systems
Implementation Framework
  • Impact and Risk Assessment Framework
  • National Adaptation Planning
  • Implementation and Cross-Target Indicators
  • Means of Implementation Options
  • Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning
  • Metadata and Methodology Status
  • Data Availability and Disaggregation
  • Expert Reflections and Future Directions
  • Our Expert Contributors
According to the Tawharau O Nga Hapu O Whakatohea Resource Management Plan
Mauri is described as the life-force or life-giving essence that emanates from Io (the supreme being). According to the document:
Mauri "generates, regenerates and upholds creation, binding physical and spiritual elements of elements of all things together"
"When something dies, the mauri is no longer able to bind those elements together and thereby give life"
"Without mauri nothing can survive"
Role in Kaitiakitanga
The primary responsibility of Kaitiaki (guardians) is to "protect the mauri or lifeforce of all things in a way which ensures that the quality of tribal taonga passed on to future generations is as good as or better than currently."
Holistic Understanding
The document emphasizes that physical damage to a resource also results in spiritual damage to its mauri. This is illustrated through the concept of wholeness - when the three elements are not all recognized and provided for, it results in a "loss of wholeness."
  • taha tinana (physical)
  • taha hinengaro (intellectual)
  • taha wairua (spiritual)
Nga Wai Tipuna and its Alignment with the Mauri Compass
In the section on Nga Wai Tipuna (Ancestral Water), the document specifically states:
"Water is life-giving with its own mauri or life-force which must be nurtured as a living entity"
Practices that "defile the mauri and mana of water are seen as abhorrent"
"The wellbeing of water is a reflection of the wellbeing of the land, and this in turn is a reflection of the wellbeing of the Tangata Whenua, Whakatōhea"
The Mauri Compass is founded on this Whakatauki:
Toitu te marae o Tane
Protect and strengthen the realms of the land
Toitu te marae o Tangaroa
Protect and strengthen the realms of the sea
Toitu te Tangata
And only then will the iwi thrive
Monitoring and Protection
One of the applications of Kaitiakitanga includes "monitoring resource indicators, where resources indicate the state of their mauri" - suggesting that the health of resources can be assessed through observing their mauri.
The concept of mauri is central to the entire resource management philosophy of Whakatōhea, representing the interconnected life-force that must be protected and maintained across all taonga (treasures/resources).

We have reproduced the entire Tawharau O Nga Hapu O Whakatohea Resource Management Plan here:
Also, the Resource Management Plan has been filed with the Whakatane District Council and is located on their website, located:
Executive Summary
Our analysis highlights environmental concerns, catchment assessments, program successes, and the strong legislative framework supporting Whakatōhea's taiao management.
Catchment Assessment Results
  • Waioweka: Taonga richness critically low (1/5), compromised mahinga kai
  • Waiōtahe: Most degraded system with severe contamination constraints
  • Ōtara: Modified by historic engineering, ongoing diffuse contamination
  • Waiaua: Headwater strengths but lower catchment degradation
Climate Resilience Indicators
  • Monitoring climate change impacts on local ecosystems
  • Developing adaptation measures specific to Whakatōhea
  • Establishing metrics for community resilience
Critical Environmental Status
  • Waiōtahe Estuary: 95% shellfish population decline over 20 years
  • Faecal contamination 20x over safe swimming limits (6,600/100ml in 2017)
  • Dairy farming contributing 65% of nitrogen pollution
Feedback Loop Mechanisms
  • Implementing kaitiaki, hapū, and iwi feedback systems
  • Developing clear reporting mechanisms
  • Ensuring continuous improvement in resource management
Hapū Involvement & Endorsement
  • Facilitated hapū participation in monitoring
  • Ongoing monthly meeting processes with hapu kaitiaki
  • Engaging hapu for broader support and insights
Legislative Framework
  • Whakatōhea Claims Settlement Act 2024 provides statutory authority
  • Te Mana o te Wai principles operationalised through Mauri Compass
  • Bay of Plenty RPS Objective 17 explicitly recognises mauri safeguarding
  • Utilizing digital tools for data collection
  • Enabling efficient field data entry by kaitiaki
  • Integrating technology for streamlined processes
Programme Success
  • 20+ uri trained in Mauri Compass methodology
  • Baseline assessments progressed across four major catchments with two more pending
  • Integration of mātauranga Māori and western science achieved
  • Evidence base established for restoration priorities
Te Mana o te Wai and the Whakatōhea Settlement Act
"The Whakatōhea Claims Settlement Act 2024 explicitly recognises Te Mana o te Wai as a fundamental principle governing the iwi's relationship with freshwater resources within their rohe. Also refer to the Whakatōhea Deed of Settlement document from 2021. This legislative recognition acknowledges that for Te Whakatōhea, Te Mana o te Wai represents the vital essence and mauri of water that sustains all life, reflecting the iwi's ancestral understanding that water possesses its own inherent mana (spiritual power) and must be protected and restored to ensure the wellbeing of both the environment and the people."
The Act's incorporation of Te Mana o te Wai provides Te Whakatōhea with statutory authority to assert their cultural values and management approaches in freshwater governance, creating legal pathways for the iwi to exercise kaitiakitanga and implement culturally appropriate monitoring and restoration practices.
"The Mauri Compass system directly operationalises the principles of Te Mana o te Wai outlined in the Settlement Act by providing a practical framework for assessing and monitoring the spiritual, cultural, and ecological health of water bodies in ways that honour Te Whakatōhea's ancestral knowledge and contemporary aspirations."
Through this alignment, the Mauri Compass becomes a monitoring tool and a mechanism for giving effect to the Settlement Act's recognition of Te Mana o te Wai, enabling Te Whakatōhea to fulfill their statutory obligations while maintaining the integrity of their cultural values and ensuring that the mana of their ancestral waters is protected and enhanced for future generations.
Whakatōhea Kaitiaki Forum
The Whakatōhea Kaitiaki Forum, established under Part 4 of the Whakatōhea Claims Settlement Act 2024, is the primary mechanism for co-governance and environmental management of rivers and catchments within the Whakatōhea rohe.
Express Views
Enabling Whakatōhea to participate in river and catchment management
Support Kaitiakitanga
Strengthening mana whakahaere and traditional guardianship
Promote Te Mana o te Wai
Advancing the vital essence and spiritual power of water
Strengthen Relationships
Building partnerships with councils and agencies
This structured approach significantly encourages greater hapū participation and strengthens their endorsement of environmental management initiatives.
Alignment with Whakatōhea Kaitiaki Forum
The Mauri Compass could directly support the statutory purposes and functions of the Kaitiaki Forum:
Through regular Mauri Compass assessments, the Forum can:
  • Monitor change over time
  • Advocate for improvements
  • Fulfil its statutory functions
  • Provide a transparent, iwi-led voice in freshwater and catchment management
Cultural Values Statement
The Whakatōhea Cultural Values Statement (CVS) provides the foundation for how Whakatōhea values and tikanga are expressed in the environmental space. It sets out primary cultural values of rangatiratanga, kaitiakitanga, ara whakamua, mauri & wairua, mana & tapu.
These values underpin the vision and aspirations that will be articulated through Te Rautaki Kaitiaki and expressed through Mauri Compass monitoring.
Primary Cultural Values
Primary Cultural Values
  • Rangatiratanga - Leadership and authority
  • Kaitiakitanga - Environmental guardianship
  • Ara whakamua - Pathways forward
  • Mauri & wairua - Life force and spiritual essence
  • Mana & tapu - Power and sacredness
Integration Framework
The Cultural Values Statement provides the foundation for:
  • Te Rautaki Kaitiaki development
  • Mauri Compass monitoring protocols
  • Environmental assessment criteria
  • Cultural impact evaluation
Policy and Planning Alignment
Alignment with Bay of Plenty Regional Policy Statement
Statutory Framework and Mauri Recognition
The Bay of Plenty Regional Policy Statement (RPS) provides the overarching framework for sustainable resource management across the region. Significantly, the RPS explicitly recognises the concept of mauri through Objective 17, which states:
This objective creates a direct statutory pathway for the integration of the Mauri Compass System within BOPRC's planning and consent processes.
The Mauri Compass provides the methodological framework to:
  • Assess current mauri status across multiple environmental domains
  • Monitor changes in mauri over time through standardised indicators
  • Identify enhancement opportunities where mauri has been degraded
  • Establish baseline conditions for future monitoring and management
Further legislative context is provided by the Whakatōhea Claims Settlement Act 2024.
Integration with Regional Plans
Regional Water and Land Plan Applications
The Mauri Compass System can be integrated into BOPRC's regional planning processes through several mechanisms.
Plan Development and Review
  • Providing baseline mauri assessments to inform plan objectives and policies
  • Contributing cultural indicators to complement scientific monitoring programmes
  • Supporting the identification of areas requiring special protection or enhancement measures
Plan Implementation
  • Establishing mauri-based performance indicators for plan effectiveness
  • Supporting adaptive management approaches through ongoing mauri monitoring
  • Informing plan variations and changes based on mauri assessment outcomes
Coastal Environment Plan Integration
The System's marine and estuarine assessment capabilities directly support the implementation of the Bay of Plenty Regional Coastal Environment Plan, particularly in:
  • Assessing cumulative effects of coastal development
  • Monitoring the health of coastal ecosystems and mahinga kai areas
  • Supporting iwi and hapū participation in coastal management decisions
RMA Consent Process Integration
Cultural Impact Assessment Enhancement
The Mauri Compass System provides a robust framework for cultural impact assessment within RMA consent processes, offering:
Standardised Assessment Methodology
  • Consistent evaluation criteria across different project types and scales
  • Quantifiable indicators that can be compared across time and space
  • Integration of both tangible and intangible cultural values
Evidence-Based Decision Making
  • Scientifically rigorous data collection and analysis procedures
  • Clear documentation of cultural effects and their significance
  • Transparent reporting that supports informed consent decisions
Mauri Compass Catchment Assessments
The Mauri Compass Dashboard
Comprehensive assessment of six catchments using the Mauri Compass framework, providing quantitative scores across four assessment domains: Te Ao Māori, Nga Tini A Tangaroa (Taonga Species), Te Ao Taiao (Environmental Health), and Catchment Health.
Assessment Framework
Each catchment is evaluated using standardised indicators across multiple domains, with scores ranging from 1.0 (critical condition) to 5.0 (excellent condition). Data gaps are identified where traditional knowledge and scientific monitoring require integration.
Waioweka Catchment
Declining Condition
Taonga Species
Richness: 1.0
Abundance: 1.6
Health: 1.0
Catchment Health
2.2
Pressured system
Te Ao Taiao
Habitat: 1.8
Biodiversity: 2.3
Biohazards: 2.3
Chemistry: 3.8
Te Ao Māori
Data Gap
Requires integration
Critical Findings
"The combined assessment of tuna, whio, and inanga indicates a serious decline in mahinga kai species richness and abundance. Across all indicators, the catchment is failing to provide the diversity, abundance, and health required to sustain customary harvests."
  • Tuna populations: Significantly reduced abundance, rare sightings of large mature individuals
  • Whio: Critically reduced populations despite Eastern Whio Link programme efforts
  • Inanga: Very low numbers due to degraded spawning habitats and riparian clearance
  • Shellfish: Locally extinct or extremely diminished
Environmental Pressures
"Historical sources (e.g., a 1925 New Zealand Herald article) identified the removal of bush along the Waioweka as a driver of increased flooding, a legacy issue that persists today."
  • Erosion susceptibility: 76.8% LAWA rating reflecting unstable river dynamics
  • Agricultural impacts: Thousands of cattle contributing to nutrient loads and bacterial contamination
  • Historic pollution: Documented sewage discharge from Ōpōtiki Hospital (1949)
  • Riparian degradation: 40-60% native vegetation cover, heavily fragmented
Ōtara River
Poor Condition
Taonga Species
Data Gap
Assessment required
Catchment Health
1.9
Pressured system
Te Ao Taiao
Habitat: 1.6
Biodiversity: 1.5
Biohazards: 1.0
Chemistry: 3.5
Te Ao Māori
Data Gap
Requires integration
Critical Assessment
"The Mauri Compass indicates the Ōtara River is a pressured, modified system where cultural use (mahinga kai) and ecological functioning are constrained by historic engineering works, ongoing diffuse contamination, and riparian/habitat simplification."
Historical Modification
"Prior to the 1960s it migrated laterally and avulsed, creating cut-offs and dry channels typical of a dynamic gravel-bed system. Following the 1964 flood, stopbanks and control works were installed to contain flooding and reduce erosion."
  • Hydrological modification: Stopbanks constrain natural geomorphic processes
  • Habitat simplification: Reduced riffle-run-pool sequences
  • Erosion susceptibility: ≈87% class reflecting altered dynamics
  • Fish passage barriers: Restricting recolonisation and life-stage migrations
Contamination Issues
  • Biohazards score: 1.0 - High pathogen risk, precaution advised for recreation
  • Historic pollution: Imhoff tank effluent discharge via pipeline
  • Water quality trends: E.coli toward poorer grades with degrading trend
Waiōtahe Catchment
Critical Condition
"Pressured awa-estuary system with mahinga kai and cultural use constrained by faecal contamination, sedimentation, and incomplete riparian management."

Peak Contamination Event (2017)
"Waiōtahe Estuary faecal coliform level: 6,600/100ml (20 times over safe limit)... Te Upokorehe perspective: 'no one consulted the iwi about the health warning and contamination'"

— Radio New Zealand, 2017
Waiaua River
Mixed Condition
"The Waiaua River, while retaining some strengths in its headwaters, shows degradation in lower catchment areas due to agricultural and forestry impacts."
Headwater Strengths
  • Retained native vegetation cover
  • Better water quality indicators
  • Less intensive land use impacts
Lower Catchment Issues
  • Agricultural intensification impacts
  • Forestry-related sedimentation
  • Degraded riparian margins
Catchment Assessment Results
Initial catchment assessments across Waioweka, Ōtara, Waiaua, and Waiōtahe indicate significant environmental and cultural degradation. The Mauri Compass provides quantitative evidence of the urgent need for restoration.
Waioweka Catchment
Compromised mahinga kai, modified catchment processes, biodiversity decline, and water chemistry pressured by agricultural intensification.
Waiōtahe Catchment
Pressured awa-estuary system with mahinga kai and cultural use constrained by faecal contamination, sedimentation, and incomplete riparian management.
Ōtara River
Modified system where cultural use and ecological functioning are constrained by historic engineering works, ongoing diffuse contamination, and habitat simplification.
Waiaua River
Retains some strengths in headwaters but shows degradation in lower catchment areas due to agricultural and forestry impacts.
Future Assessments
Opape
Scheduled for comprehensive Mauri Compass assessment using the same four-domain framework applied to completed catchments.
Tirohanga
Scheduled for comprehensive Mauri Compass assessment using the same four-domain framework applied to completed catchments.
Overall Assessment Summary
"Overall, the Mauri Compass provides a tool for Te Whakatōhea to assert their mana whakahaere, guide restoration efforts, and support the long-term wellbeing of their taiao in a manner that is both scientifically robust and culturally authentic."

— Executive Summary
4
Catchments Assessed
2
Pending Assessments
4
Assessment Domains
Whakatōhea Waterways: Environmental Change and Impact Assessment 1883-2025
142 years of documented environmental transformation
1
Baseline Conditions (1883)
Pristine water quality, rich biodiversity, active traditional management systems
2
Early Colonial Period (1865-1900)
Initial European settlement and land use changes
3
Mid-Century Infrastructure (1950-1980)
Major infrastructure development and intensive farming
4
21st Century Crisis (2000-2021)
Recognition of environmental crisis and restoration efforts
Detailed Chronological Timeline of Environmental Changes
Documented evidence of environmental transformation with historical sources
Baseline Conditions (1883)
"Historical records describe the Ōtara River in 1883 as exhibiting high clarity and blue coloration, indicating minimal anthropogenic impact."

— Archives New Zealand, 1936-1973
Waterways served multiple functions including spiritual practices (karakia, whakanoa, whakawātea, tohi), food procurement (mahinga kai systems), settlement location determinant for pā and papakāinga, and seasonal resource management through māra.
Early Colonial Period (1865-1900)
1886: First Recorded Pollution Concerns
"Ōpōtiki Town Board resolution addressed rubbish disposal and river bank degradation... place for depositing rubbish be on the upper side of the Canoe Bridge... put a stop to the digging and carting away of certain portions of the Ōtara River bank"

— Ōpōtiki Town Board, 1886
Early 20th Century (1900-1950)
1925: Deforestation Impact Assessment
"New Zealand Herald article established 'definite link of flooding to the cause of early deforestation of native vegetation'... much of the cleared land along the Waioweka should never have been stripped of its bush"

— New Zealand Herald, 1925
1949: Hospital Sewerage Disposal
"Ōpōtiki Hospital Board approved 'new hospital sewerage disposal directly into the Waioweka River'... Area identified as 'popular swimming place, in conjunction with fishing in the river'"

— Ōpōtiki Hospital Board, 1949
Mid-Century Infrastructure Period (1950-1980)
1977: Waiōtahe Spit Proposal and Opposition
"Senior Lecturer in Earth Science advised 'virtually unspoiled dune area had important ecosystems'... 'Definite drainage issues from the dump at the locale would undoubtedly damage the ecology of the Waiōtahe estuary'"
"New Zealand Historic Places Trust survey identified pā site in 'very good condition' with 'terraces, gunfighters pits, shell midden, scarps and trenches'"

— New Zealand Historic Places Trust, 1977
21st Century Crisis Period (2000-2021)
2017: Peak Contamination Event
"Waiōtahe Estuary faecal coliform level: 6,600/100ml (20 times over safe limit)... Te Upokorehe perspective: 'no one consulted the iwi about the health warning and contamination'"

— Radio New Zealand, 2017
2018-2022: Brooklyn Dairy Farm Compliance
"2021 officer report: 'ponds were overflowing. Effluent travelled overland into stormwater drain, then not a farm drain which discharges into the Ōtara River'... 'No farm worker on site at the time had been trained or knew how to operate the effluent system'"

— Bay of Plenty Regional Council, 2018-2022
Quantitative Impact Assessment
Shellfish Population Decline (2000-2020)
  • Baseline (2000): 100% relative population
  • 2003-2005 decline: Population dropped to 10-20%
  • 2019-2020 decline: Population fell to 5%
  • Total decline: 95% over 20-year period
Bacterial Contamination Levels
  • Ōhiwa Harbour (1997): 9.1x over safe limit
  • Nukuhou River (2005): 16.4x over safe limit
  • Waiōtahe Estuary (2017): 20x over safe limit
Bilingual Resources
Level 1 Wānanga Success
Date: 12-13 June 2025 | Tūtāmure - Te Aho Wānanga
Programme Details
Participants: 20+ uri from across Te Whakatōhea hapū
Facilitators: Ian Ruru, Riaki Ruru, Ashlee Mio, Ropata Simpson, Logan Bertram, Tawa Kingi and Marella Morrison
Training Components
  • Te Ao Māori framing of wai and mauri
  • Mātauranga and eDNA crossover
  • Tuna habitat assessments (Eels on Wheels)
  • Real-time use of Mauri Compass App and Database
  • Water quality data collection using taiao technology
  • Mapping consents and kaitiaki observations
Te Reo Hōtaka Whakangungu
E ngā mana, e ngā reo, e ngā karangatanga maha, tēnā koutou. Tēnā koutou i o tātou tini aitua. Otirā, te hunga mate ki te hunga mate. Tātou te hunga ora e pai nei – Tihei mauri ora!
He whakamā mātou ki te whakapuaki i ō mātou wheako ki te Mauri Compass. Ko tēnei akoranga he wāhanga o te Mauri Compass Training programme. Ko te whāinga o tēnei TUNA MODULE he ako hoki mō te tuna māhaki, ā, he whakaaro nui hoki mō tēnei taonga hei tohu mō te mauri o ō mātou awa, roto hoki.
"Mauri mahi, mauri ora" Team Mauri Compass
Te Taiao o te Mauri Compass
Ko te mātāpono matua o Te Ao Māori e whakatū nei i te Mauri Compass he mea whakatakoto ai i tēnei whakataukī:
Toitū te marae o Tane
Tiakina, whakakaha hoki ngā taiao o te whenua
Toitū te marae o Tangaroa
Tiakina, whakakaha hoki ngā taiao o te wai
Toitū te Tangata
Ā kātahi ka tipu, ka puawai hoki ngā tangata
I whakawhanakehia te Mauri Compass e ngā kaitiaki, mā ngā kaitiaki hei taputapu aromatawai taiao whānui, ā, ko ngā mātauranga Māori me ngā pūtaiao taketake he momo mātauranga motuhake anō.
Ngā Tahuhu o te Tuna
He Taonga mō Māori
Mō Māori, he taonga te tuna – he taonga ahurea nui. He maha ngā ingoa o Māori mō ngā tuna, he whakaahua i ō rātou tae me ō rātou rahi rerekē, ā, he whakapai hoki hei hononga ki ngā atua.
He tawhito hoki ngā tuna, he rite ki a Aotearoa nei. I ngā miriona tau, kua tipu rātou hei kaikino matua o ngā awa, roto, awa hoki o te whenua.
Puna-kauariki
I tētahi tahuhu, he taketake rangi tō Tuna, ā, i ahu mai i a Puna-kauariki, he puna i ngā rangi teitei rawa.
I roto i te puna Puna-kauariki ko ngā whānau kē: Parā (kōpiro hukarere), Ngoiro (kōpiro roa), me Tuere (Lamprey, Piharau, Kanakana rānei).
Ngā Momo Tuna o Aotearoa
I te taiao katoa he 15 ngā momo tuna wai māori o te rōpū Anguilla. He 3 ngā momo taketake o Aotearoa:
Tuna roa-whiore
Anguilla dieffenbachii - He taketake anake ki Aotearoa. Ka tipu ki te 200cm, ā, ka roa ai ki te 60 tau rānei.
Tuna poto-whiore
Anguilla australis - He taketake engari kāore he taketake anake ki Aotearoa. Ka tipu ki te 80cm, ā, ka roa ai ki te 60 tau.
Tuna roa-whiore Ahitereiria
Anguilla reinhardtii - He atahua, ā, i kite ai i Aotearoa i ngā tau 1990s.
Te Taiao o te Tuna
Ngā āhuatanga waho me ō rātou mahi:
01
Ngā Whiore Runga me Raro
He tahunahua ki te whiore, ā, he whakangāwari i te tuna i te wai.
02
Te Raina Taha
He whakaritenga whakamua o ngā kaiwhakakite mō te kite i ngā whakakorikori i te wai. He pērā i tētahi GPS compass.
03
Ngā Kirikiri
He kiri matua, pakari hoki, ā, ka taea te whakangā hāora mā ngā raina toto iti i te mata.
04
Ngā Whiore Taha
He whakahaere i te taiao, arā, he whakangāwari me te whakangāwari i te ika.
Ngā Wāhanga o Roto
Roro
Te pokapū whakahaere, kei konei katoa ngā mōhiohio whakakite ka whakawhakatika.
Ngā Kirikiri
Ka whakangā i raro i te wai mā te tauhokohoko kāhui me te kōmau hāora ki te raina toto.
Manawa
Ka kōkiri/kōpikopiko i te toto puta noa i te tinana.
Ate
He whakawhanaketanga, whakarerekē, puritia hoki ngā kai. He nui hoki tana mahi ki te whakangaro i ngā pūtau toto tawhito.
Te Raina Roa o te Tuna
Ko ngā tuna wai māori o Aotearoa he "catadromous", arā, ka whānau ki te moana engari ka noho ai te nuinga o ō rātou rā ki te wai māori.
Whakatipu me te Whakangā
Ka whānau ngā tuna kotahi anake i mua i a rātou mate. Ko ngā taiao whakatipu tawhito mō ngā tuna kei tata ki a Hawaiki.
Ngā Wā Kōhungahunga
Ka kawea ngā kōhungahunga tuna (leptocephali) ki Aotearoa mā te South Equatorial Current.
Tuna Karaihe
Ka uru ngā miriona kōhungahunga whakarerekē (tuna karaihe) ki ngā ngutu awa me ngā awa mai i Ākuhata ki Tīhema.
Elver
Ko te whakangā tohu he tawhiti mai i ngā tuna karaihe ki ngā elver. Ka kōpikopiko ki runga i Ianuari me Pēpuere.
Tuna Pakeke
Ko te wāhanga nui o te raina roa ka whakatakoto ki ngā taiao wai māori i mua i a rātou whakangā hoki ki te moana.
Ngā Ritenga Kai o te Tuna
Ko ngā hiahia kai o ngā tuna ka rerekē i ngā wā katoa o tō rātou raina roa:
1
Ngā Wā Kōhungahunga
Zooplankton
2
Tuna Karaihe
I muri i te "wā nohopuku", ka kai katoa ngā tuna karaihe i te wai māori. Ko tā rātou kai he pepeke iti, kōhungahunga, hua ika hoki.
3
Elver me ngā Tuna < 400mm
Kāore ngā tuna o tēnei rahi e kai ai i te wai māhorahora. Ko tā rātou kai matua ko ngā pepeke awa pērā i ngā Stoneflies, Mayflies, Caddisflies, Beetles.
4
Ngā Tuna 400-750mm
He kai rerekē ake ngā tuna o tēnei rahi, ka kai hoki i te wai māhorahora. I tua atu i ngā pepeke awa, ka kai hoki i ngā ika iti.
5
Ngā Tuna Pakeke > 750mm
Ka kai ngā tuna o tēnei rahi i ngā ika nui ake me ngā manu iti.
6
Ngā Pakeke Kōpikopiko (Tuna Heke)
Kāore ngā tuna kōpikopiko e kai ai i tō rātou tawhiti hoki ki ō rātou taiao whakatipu moana i tata ki a Hawaiki.
Ngā Taiao Tipu Pai me ngā Mate
Ngā Taiao Tipu Pai
  • Pāmahana: 22-28°C he pai rawa
  • Hāora Kōmau: > 5 mg/L
  • pH: 7-9 he taiao pai
  • Kirikiri Kōpikopiko: < 40 mg/L
Ko te pāmahana wai he whakahaere i ngā mahi o ngā tuna. Ka mutu ngā tuna te kai i raro i te 10°C, ā, ka mutu ngā mahi katoa i te 5-6°C.
Ngā Mate me ngā Raru Hauora
  • Ngā mate microbial
  • Ngā mate protozoan
  • Ngā mate metazoan
  • Ngā mate husbandry
Ka taea ngā tuna e ngā mate maha me ngā taupae. He maha o ngā mate he whakawhirinaki ki te pāmahana, arā, ka tipu i roto i tētahi taiao pāmahana.
Mahinga Kai me te Haumarutanga
Ko te mahinga kai he uara whakangā i raro i te National Policy Statement – Freshwater Management 2020. He whakanui tēnei i ngā uara a Māori mō te wai māori.
Haumarutanga i te Taiao
Me mahi ngātahi ngā kaimahi i ngā awa. Me whakarite i ngā taputapu haumarutanga katoa pērā i ngā kākahu atahua, ngā waders, me ngā lifejackets.
Tikanga me Kawa
Me whakaaro, me whakatinana hoki ngā tikanga me ngā kawa o te tangata whenua. Me tiaki te wairua o ngā awa mā ngā tikanga me ngā kawa tika.
Kohikohi Raraunga
Me whakamahi ngā taputapu ā-ipurangi me ngā pukapuka mō te kohikohi raraunga Mauri Compass. Ko te tuna dissection me te otolith extraction he wāhanga nui.
"Kia mau ki ngā kupu o ōu tīpuna" - He taonga nui tēnei mātauranga mō ngā uri katoa.
Climate Adaptation, Resilience and Implications for Coastal Iwi
Prepared by Ian Ruru, 1 of 78 international experts under the UAE-Belém Work Programme.
International Expert Workshop: Bonn, Germany.
Contents Overview
01
Implications for Coastal Iwi in Aotearoa
How this global framework applies to small coastal Māori communities in New Zealand.
02
Introduction
Background on the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience and the two-year work programme
03
Development Process
How 78 technical experts refined and developed the indicators through collaborative review
04
Indicator Set Description
Comprehensive overview of the 100 globally applicable indicators across all targets.
05
Metadata Status
Assessment of methodologies, data availability, and disaggregation capabilities.
06
Expert Reflections
Key insights and recommendations for implementation and future development.
This report represents the culmination of extensive collaborative work by international experts to create a robust foundation for measuring climate adaptation progress globally.
Implications for Coastal Iwi in Aotearoa
Adapting Global Indicators for Iwi Contexts
For us, adapting global indicators means embedding them within our worldview. We can’t just import them wholesale. It's about taking these frameworks and making them relevant to our tikanga and our whakapapa to land and sea.
The Power of Mātauranga Māori
Mātauranga Māori, our traditional knowledge, is paramount. It offers crucial insights for climate adaptation measurement, often providing solutions that Western science is only beginning to understand. Our tupuna observed environmental shifts for generations; that knowledge is invaluable for today’s challenges.
Vulnerabilities of Coastal Iwi Communities
Our communities are inherently vulnerable. Sea level rise and coastal erosion threaten our homes, our urupā , and sacred cultural sites. These aren't just physical losses; they are deeply spiritual and cultural losses that impact our identity.
Iwi / Hapu Leading Local Adaptation Efforts
The Mauri Compass framework offers opportunities for hapu / iwi to lead. By aligning global indicators with our local needs and practices, we can drive adaptation efforts that are culturally appropriate and highly effective.
The Challenge of Scale
Applying global indicators to our small, isolated communities presents a scale challenge. What works for a nation might not directly apply to a hapū of a few hundred people. We need flexibility and a nuanced understanding of local realities.
Cultural Heritage and Traditional Knowledge Integration
Protecting our cultural heritage and integrating traditional knowledge isn't an add-on; it's fundamental. Our adaptation strategies must weave together modern science with ancient wisdom, safeguarding our past for future generations.
Practical Applications for Iwi / Hapu Climate Adaptation Planning
Practically, this framework can help us prioritise actions, secure funding, and demonstrate the impact of our efforts. It provides a common language for reporting while allowing for local methodologies to gather data that truly matters to us.
Indigenous Rights and Climate Adaptation
Finally, the intersection of Indigenous rights and climate adaptation measurement is critical. Our rights to self-determination and to protect our cultural landscapes must be at the forefront of any framework that seeks to measure climate progress.
It's about ensuring these global conversations genuinely serve and uplift those most directly impacted, allowing our voices and unique knowledge systems to shape the solutions for a resilient future.
Introduction to the UAE Framework
Decision 2/CMA.5 adopted the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience, establishing a comprehensive approach to achieving the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA). This landmark framework defines eleven critical targets that guide global climate adaptation efforts.
Seven Thematic Targets
Covering water, food, health, ecosystems, infrastructure, poverty, and cultural heritage
Four Adaptation Cycle Targets
Addressing assessment, planning, implementation, and monitoring dimensions
Two-Year Work Programme
UAE-Belém initiative to develop comprehensive indicators for measuring progress
The Chairs of the Subsidiary Bodies convened 78 technical experts to support the development of indicators, drawing on submissions from Parties and stakeholders as well as national reports to the UNFCCC. This collaborative approach ensures the indicators reflect diverse global perspectives and expertise.
Expert-Led Development Process
Collaborative Framework
The 78 experts were strategically allocated across eight expert groups - one for each thematic target and one for the adaptation cycle targets. Following guidance from CMA.6 in Baku, experts could participate in multiple groups to enhance cross-collaboration.
1
September 2024
Expert groups convened and began systematic review of 9,529 compiled indicators
2
March 2025
Hybrid workshop in Bonn facilitated peer review and collective assessment
3
August 2025
Final expert meeting in Nairobi refined indicators to 100 globally applicable measures
Experts invested substantial amounts of time beyond their regular responsibilities. Many participated across multiple time zones, with some attending climate negotiations in Baku and daily meetings in Bonn.

The dedication of these experts enabled the completion of this critical task, reducing indicators from 9,529 to a focused set of 100 globally applicable measures.
Comprehensive Indicator Framework
The expert group developed a standardised template providing comprehensive information for each of the 100 indicators. This systematic approach ensures consistency and enables meaningful comparison across targets and regions.
1
Indicator Identification
Unique ID system starting with target number followed by serial number (e.g., 9a01)
2
Disaggregation Levels
Multiple dimensions including social, geographic, and sectoral breakdowns for enhanced granularity
3
Target Mapping
Clear alignment with specific sub-components of the eleven UAE Framework targets
4
Detailed Descriptions
Comprehensive definitions and qualitative context for proper interpretation
Template Structure and Components
Essential Information Categories
  • Rationale and Relevance: Global applicability and adaptation significance
  • Cross-Target Connections: Indicators relevant to multiple targets
  • Metadata Status: Availability of methodologies and data sources
  • Data Availability: Current status and accessibility of required data
  • Measurement Units: Specific units or qualitative descriptors
  • Means of Implementation: Access, quality, and finance considerations
  • Operationalisation: Steps needed for Party reporting

The template was updated after SB62 to incorporate additional guidance from Parties, ensuring alignment with evolving requirements.
Dramatic Indicator Refinement
The expert group achieved a remarkable reduction of nearly 80% in the number of indicators, from 490 to 100, whilst maintaining comprehensive coverage of all targets.
This systematic refinement process involved rigorous peer review, elimination of redundancy, and careful prioritisation to ensure each indicator provides meaningful, actionable information for measuring adaptation progress.
1
Compilation
Gathered submissions from Parties and stakeholders
2
Analysis
Expert groups reviewed against established criteria
3
Refinement
Reduced redundancy and enhanced global applicability
Target Distribution Overview
The 100 indicators are strategically distributed across the eleven targets, with each thematic target receiving balanced coverage whilst adaptation cycle targets reflect their specific requirements.
10
Water & Sanitation
Addressing climate-induced water scarcity and resilience
10
Food & Agriculture
Production, supply chains, and nutrition outcomes
10
Health Services
Climate-related morbidity and healthcare resilience
10
Ecosystems
Biodiversity conservation and nature-based solutions
7
Infrastructure
Essential services and adaptive planning
9
Poverty & Livelihoods
Protecting vulnerable populations and assets
Adaptation Cycle Integration
Systematic Approach
The indicators connect climate impacts, risk context, adaptation actions, and measurable results through a logical framework that supports comprehensive monitoring and evaluation.
Assessment
Impact, vulnerability, and risk evaluation
Planning
National adaptation strategies and policies
Implementation
Action delivery and means of implementation
Monitoring
Evaluation and learning systems
Many indicators can be disaggregated across multiple dimensions, including social, livelihood, ecosystem, and geographic categories, enabling nuanced analysis of adaptation progress.
Indigenous Knowledge Integration
Responding to Decision 3/CMA.6, the indicators emphasise the importance of traditional knowledge, Indigenous Peoples' knowledge, and local knowledge systems throughout the adaptation measurement framework.
Cultural Heritage Protection
Indicators specifically address climate-resilient preservation of cultural practices and heritage sites
Knowledge Systems Integration
Measures for incorporating Indigenous and local knowledge into adaptation planning
Participatory Processes
Indicators tracking meaningful engagement of Indigenous Peoples and local communities
This integration ensures that adaptation measurement recognises and values diverse knowledge systems whilst promoting inclusive approaches to climate resilience building.
Water Supply and Sanitation Focus
The water-related indicators address the reality that most climate-related disasters are water-related, and most adaptation measures involve water in some form.
Climate-Induced Water Scarcity
Indicators measuring reduction in water stress and improved access to safe, affordable potable water
Water-Related Hazards
Resilience measures for floods, droughts, and emerging hazards like glacial lake outburst floods
Climate-Resilient Infrastructure
Water supply and sanitation systems designed to withstand climate impacts
These indicators draw from established global frameworks including the SDGs and Sendai Framework, whilst incorporating modifications to ensure relevance to climate resilience goals.
Food and Agriculture Systems
The ten food and agriculture indicators provide a balanced mix of action- and impact-oriented measures that track the complete agricultural value chain response to climate challenges.
Production Systems
Adoption of climate-resilient agricultural practices and technologies
Supply & Distribution
Resilient food systems and distribution networks
Nutrition Outcomes
Food security and nutritional status indicators
Five indicators focus on adaptation responses including institutional frameworks and investments, whilst five track climate impacts on agricultural productivity, losses, and food insecurity prevalence.
Health Impacts and Services
Comprehensive Health Protection
The health indicators address three critical dimensions of climate-health adaptation:
1
Impact Reduction
Monitoring progress in reducing climate-related morbidity and mortality from heat, infectious diseases, and occupational injuries
2
Service Resilience
Tracking coverage of essential health services and mental health support for climate-sensitive events
3
System Strengthening
Measuring early warning systems, vulnerability assessments, and health workforce capacity building
These indicators enable monitoring of both climate-related health risks and the effectiveness of adaptation measures, with emphasis on social and geographic disaggregation.
Ecosystems and Biodiversity Conservation
The ecosystem indicators recognise that healthy ecosystems serve as buffers to increasing climate hazards, providing critical natural infrastructure for climate resilience.
Terrestrial Systems
Forest conservation and restoration measures
Wetland Protection
Coastal and inland water ecosystem resilience
Mountain Ecosystems
High-altitude biodiversity and watershed protection
Nature-Based Solutions
Ecosystem-based adaptation implementation
Conservation Areas
Expanding protected and conserved areas
The indicators incorporate IUCN Red List methodologies and align with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, capturing substantial economic and social co-benefits.
Infrastructure and Human Settlements
The seven infrastructure indicators focus on essential services and adaptive planning that reduces climate risks and impacts on communities, acknowledging both formal and informal settlement needs.
Essential Services Access
Adaptive basic infrastructure availability across diverse communities
Adaptive Planning
Climate-informed infrastructure and settlement planning processes
Community Input
Participatory design of adaptation plans and infrastructure
These indicators acknowledge the importance of adaptation planning for temperature goal overshoot scenarios and capture complex risk dynamics that may signal adaptation limits requiring transformative change.
Poverty Eradication and Livelihoods
The nine poverty and livelihoods indicators recognise that reducing poverty and protecting livelihoods is fundamental for enabling resilience across all sectors.
Impact Monitoring
Three indicators track climate change impacts on poverty eradication efforts
Protective Measures
Six indicators measure policies reducing climate impacts on livelihoods
Labour Force Diversification
Measures supporting economic resilience through diverse employment opportunities
Financial Protection
Access to finance, climate risk insurance, and adaptive social protection systems
Private Sector Adaptation
Business and enterprise climate resilience measures
Cultural Heritage and Knowledge Systems
The eight cultural heritage indicators focus on protection from climate-related risks whilst promoting the integration of traditional, Indigenous, and local knowledge systems in adaptation planning.
Tangible Heritage Protection
Climate adaptation measures for vulnerable heritage sites and infrastructure retrofitting
Intangible Heritage Resilience
Enhancing resilience of cultural practices and digitisation of vulnerable heritage
Policy Integration
Emergency preparedness plans and adaptation policies including heritage safeguarding
Capacity Building
Training programmes engaging Indigenous Peoples and local knowledge systems
These indicators emphasise climate-resilient infrastructure guided by traditional building practices and the meaningful engagement of Indigenous Peoples in heritage protection efforts.
Impact and Risk Assessment Framework
The ten assessment indicators align with the four pillars of multi-hazard early warning systems, providing comprehensive risk knowledge and preparedness capabilities.
Disaster Risk Knowledge
Climate hazard, impact, and exposure assessments forming the foundation for informed decision-making
Observation & Monitoring
Systematic data collection and analysis systems for climate-related risks
Warning Dissemination
Communication systems ensuring timely and accessible risk information
Response Capabilities
Preparedness measures and institutional capacity for effective climate response
These indicators can be disaggregated across thematic targets and sectors, measuring elements relevant to all other targets whilst tracking international support for climate information systems.
National Adaptation Planning
The planning indicators assess the quality and comprehensiveness of national adaptation planning processes through three critical components.
1
2
3
1
Policy Integration
2
Inclusive Processes
3
Plan Existence
The indicators evaluate whether Parties have national adaptation plans and strategies, whether these are developed through participatory and gender-responsive processes, and whether adaptation considerations are systematically integrated into broader development frameworks.
These measures capture relevant enabling factors for adaptation implementation, focusing on policy and institutional structures that support long-term resilience building.
Implementation and Cross-Target Indicators
The implementation target includes both progress measurement and comprehensive cross-target indicators for means of implementation that apply across all targets.
Implementation Progress
Four indicators measuring advancement in implementing national adaptation plans and resulting impact reduction
Finance Indicators
Four indicators covering adaptation costs, international public finance, annual expenditure, and private sector finance
Capacity Building
Two indicators tracking institutional arrangements and adaptive capacity development
Technology Transfer
One indicator measuring implementation of identified adaptation technology needs
Means of Implementation Options
Recognising the political complexity of means of implementation, three cross-target indicators include multiple options for Party consideration, particularly regarding international finance flows.
These options reflect different approaches to measuring international public finance for adaptation, acknowledging that resolution requires political rather than technical decisions.

Cross-target indicators should be disaggregated across thematic targets and sectors, as they are critical for achieving all adaptation goals.
Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning
The five MEL indicators measure both system development and institutional capacity for effective adaptation monitoring, recognising that robust MEL systems typically require several years to develop and operationalise.
Institutional Capacity
Policy Integration
Findings Publication
System Operation
System Development
The indicators differentiate development stages and emphasise inclusive processes involving vulnerable groups and Indigenous Peoples in MEL system design and implementation.
Metadata and Methodology Status
The expert assessment reveals that metadata is available for nearly a quarter of indicators, with established methodologies from global frameworks providing a strong foundation.
25%
Complete Metadata
Available with minor modifications expected
50%
Modification Required
Existing metadata needs adaptation-specific adjustments
25%
New Development
Completely new indicators requiring fresh methodologies
Key sources include SDG metadata repositories, Sendai Framework monitoring systems, and databases from FAO, WHO, UNFCCC, and other UN agencies. This foundation enables rapid operationalisation whilst ensuring consistency with established global monitoring systems.
Data Availability and Disaggregation
Data availability assessment shows promising foundations, with nearly 30% of indicators having available data and over 60% having partial availability requiring methodological adjustments.
Social Categories
Sex, age, disability, migration status, Indigenous Peoples, and local communities
Thematic Targets
Disaggregation across all eleven UAE Framework targets
Geographic Distribution
Rural/urban, national/local, river basins, and ecosystem boundaries
Climate Hazards
Breakdown by specific climate-related risks and impacts
Expert Reflections and Future Directions
The 78 experts emphasise that successful implementation requires coordinated global action across multiple dimensions, from methodology enhancement to capacity building.
1
Immediate Actions
Enhance methodologies, develop technical guidance, and strengthen Party capacities for data collection
2
Institutional Collaboration
Partner with custodian agencies and statistical offices to reduce reporting burden and ensure coherence
3
Continuous Evolution
Regular reviews aligned with Global Stocktake cycles to maintain relevance and incorporate emerging science
"The work on indicators under the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience provides an opportunity globally to do both meaningful work and open the space for more innovative work around adaptation measurement to track progress and gaps on adaptation under the Paris Agreement."
This comprehensive indicator framework represents a significant step forward in global climate adaptation measurement, providing the foundation for evidence-based progress tracking towards the Global Goal on Adaptation.
Our Expert Contributors
We extend our sincere gratitude to the 78 international experts whose dedication and invaluable expertise were instrumental in developing the climate adaptation indicators under the UAE-Belém Work Programme. Their profound knowledge and commitment have laid a strong foundation for robust global climate resilience measurement.
Mahinga Kai: Connecting People with Place, Tangata with Whenua
Mahinga kai was elevated to a compulsory value under the National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management (NPS-FM) 2020, giving greater recognition to values that Māori hold for freshwater. This comprehensive guide provides tools, examples, and practical guidance for tangata whenua and councils to implement mahinga kai through the National Objectives Framework (NOF) by 2024.
Mahinga Kai: Connecting People with Place, Tangata with Whenua
A Toolkit created in 2022
Mahinga kai was elevated to a compulsory value under the National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management (NPS-FM) 2020, giving greater recognition to values that Māori hold for freshwater. This comprehensive guide provides tools, examples, and practical guidance for tangata whenua and councils to implement mahinga kai through the National Objectives Framework (NOF) by 2024.

Ruru, I., Shivnan, S, Kanz, W., Afoa, E., Clarke, C., Nutsford, D., Lowe, M., Jelicich, A., (2022). A kete for implementing mahinga kai within the National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management 2020. Prepared for the Ministry for the Environment by Maumahara Consultancy Services Ltd and Awamoana Ltd.
Acknowledgements & Citation
Prepared by:
Ian Ruru & Simone Shivnan (Maumahara Consultancy Services Ltd)
Wolfgang Kanz (Awamoana Ltd)
Emily Afoa (Tektus Consultants Ltd)
Caleb Clarke, Stu Farrant, Mark Lowe, and Daniel Nutsford (Morphum Environmental Ltd).
Review and Release Information
Final review by: Emily Afoa and Caleb Clarke.
Released by: Ian Ruru and Wolfgang Kanz.
Acknowledgements
The following individuals and organisations are acknowledged for their contributions to the project:
Mahinga kai practitioners and consultants:
  • Barry Matuku
  • Hurimoana Haami
  • Marlene Benson
  • Sam MacDonald
  • Anne-Maree McKay
  • Sam Tamarapa
  • Dr. Shaun Awatere
  • Dr. Kepa Morgan
  • Hera Gibson
  • Tu O’Brien
  • Mananui Ramsden
  • Ian Ruru
  • Ray Farmer
Regional Council staff, in particular:
  • Dave Allen (Auckland Council)
  • Mananui Ramsden (Environment Canterbury)
  • Nicola Green
  • Kataraina O’Brien
  • Gina Mohi
  • Anaru Vercoe (Bay of Plenty Regional Council)
Ministry for Environment-led project team:
  • Alba Jelicich (Project Manager)
  • Dave Allen (Auckland Council)
  • Claire Graeme (MfE)
  • Lyn Harrison (Atahaia Consultancy Ltd)
  • Kataraina O’Brien (Bay of Plenty Regional Council)
  • Christina Robb (Happen Consulting Ltd)
Technical guidance:
  • Dr. Mahina-a-rangi Baker (Te Kōnae Ltd)
Illustrations:
  • Anakura Kingi-Taumaunu
Understanding Mahinga Kai
More Than Food Gathering
While mahinga kai literally translates as "food-gathering place," the concept within te ao Māori is much deeper and broader. It encompasses people, their connections to places, the resources themselves, and the principles that inform how these resources are harvested and managed.
Mahinga kai has its roots in creation stories and acknowledges the enduring connection between atua, whenua, natural resources, and people. Recognition of tangata whenua connections to the natural world and the principles of kaitiakitanga and rangatiratanga are fundamental.
Key Principles
  • Inter-generational sustainability and prosperity
  • Traditional currency with economic value
  • Holistic integration of environmental and cultural values
  • Encompasses customs, practices, and relationships
  • Includes native and adapted non-native species
Te Mana o te Wai Framework
Hierarchy of Obligations
First: Health and well-being of water bodies and freshwater ecosystems
Second: Health needs of people (drinking water)
Third: Social, economic, and cultural well-being
Six Core Principles
  • Mana whakahaere
  • Kaitiakitanga
  • Manaakitanga
  • Governance
  • Stewardship
  • Care and respect
Connection to Mahinga Kai
Mahinga kai is intrinsically connected to Te Mana o te Wai. The principles of mana whakahaere, kaitiakitanga, and manaakitanga are integral to mahinga kai and underpin tangata whenua relationships with wai.
The National Objectives Framework Process
The NOF requires regional councils to identify Freshwater Management Units (FMUs), set values and environmental outcomes, establish target attribute states, develop interventions through limits and action plans, monitor waterbodies, and take corrective steps if deterioration is detected.
Long-term Vision
Develop ambitious but achievable goals representing community and tangata whenua wishes for waterbodies
Values & Outcomes
Identify mahinga kai and other values, set environmental outcomes as plan objectives
Attributes & States
Develop measurable characteristics, establish baseline and target attribute states
Limits & Actions
Set resource use limits, prepare action plans, implement management methods
Monitor Progress
Track progress toward targets using mātauranga Māori and scientific measures
Setting Long-term Visions
Vision Requirements
Long-term visions must be developed through engagement with communities and tangata whenua about their long-term wishes for water bodies. They should set goals that are ambitious but reasonable, with timeframes of approximately 30 years.
Visions must be informed by understanding the history and environmental pressures on FMUs, and express what communities and tangata whenua want for the future.
Example Vision Statements

Vision #1: Awa and repo have healthy plant and animal communities in the water and on adjacent land that sustain mahinga kai resources important for tangata whenua.

Vision #2: Tangata whenua can safely reconnect with their awa and repo by exercising traditional mahinga kai customs and practices in places used by their tīpuna, being kaitiaki of their waters.
Freshwater Management Units
The NOF is delivered at an FMU or part of an FMU scale. When setting mahinga kai values, these may be set at the scale of an FMU, part of an FMU, or catchment level, providing flexibility to manage the localized dimension of mahinga kai values.
1
Consider Rohe Boundaries
FMUs informed by rohe boundaries may be best suited for implementing mahinga kai values, as these are affected by cultural characteristics as well as hydrological and physical characteristics.
2
Assess Practical Constraints
Consider alignment of catchment and rohe boundaries, number of affected parties, size of rohe, and extent of upstream/downstream impacts.
3
Enable Sub-FMU Flexibility
Sub-FMUs can provide options where using rohe boundaries is impractical, allowing for more tailored regulatory and non-regulatory approaches.
4
Integrate Ki Uta Ki Tai
Ensure FMUs recognize interconnectedness and interactions between freshwater, land, water bodies, ecosystems and receiving environments.
Mahinga Kai as a Compulsory Value
Two Key Aspects
The NPS-FM 2020 defines mahinga kai through two interconnected aspects that tangata whenua determine locally:
  1. Kai is safe to harvest and eat: Desired species are plentiful enough for long-term harvest, and the range of desired species is present across all life stages.
  1. Kei te ora te mauri: The mauri of the place is intact. Customary resources are available for use, customary practices can be exercised, and tikanga and preferred methods can be practiced.
Additional Values
Tangata whenua can identify additional Māori freshwater values beyond mahinga kai, including:
  • Mauri
  • Wai tapu
  • Tauranga waka
  • Wāhi tapu
  • Wai puna
  • Nohonga
Environmental Outcomes
Councils must set environmental outcomes for mahinga kai values that apply to each FMU and include them as objectives in regional plans. These explicit outcomes inform how and where target attribute states are set and what flow regimes and take limits are needed.
Resource Availability
Tangata whenua can sustainably harvest mahinga kai plants and taonga important to them for whānau and marae events year-round, in places where they have historically occurred.
Active Kaitiakitanga
Tangata whenua exercise kaitiakitanga while actively carrying out mahinga kai customs and practices in awa and repo throughout the year, respecting local tikanga and kawa.
Mauri Restoration
The mauri of waterbodies is restored and maintained, supporting the full range of mahinga kai values and enabling spiritual and cultural connections.
Developing Attributes for Mahinga Kai
An attribute is a measurable characteristic (numeric, narrative, or both) of a value that can be used to assess the extent to which a particular value is upheld or enhanced. The NPS-FM 2020 does not prescribe specific attributes for mahinga kai—only tangata whenua can identify and lead development of attributes representing specific mahinga kai values in their local catchments.
01
Identify Success Factors
Determine key factors for achieving environmental outcomes, considering what can be measured through quantitative or qualitative data via mātauranga Māori or Western science methods.
02
Consider Information Sources
Attributes can be quantitative, semi-quantitative, or qualitative (narrative). Information may be collected through people-centered approaches including wānanga, hui, and field measurements.
03
Enable Tangata Whenua Leadership
Support tangata whenua to locally develop attributes through expert panels, existing te ao Māori tools, or their own frameworks.
04
Address Information Deficits
Where information is insufficient, develop alternative criteria or gather new data while ensuring action on the ground is taken.
Example Mahinga Kai Attributes
Abundance of Eels
Attribute: Abundance of suitably sized eels that can be harvested at mahinga kai sites
Band A: High numbers of tuna of suitable size available for tangata whenua customary fishing (catch per unit effort > 60 tuna between 0.5kg and 2kg)
Measurement: Catch per unit effort using traditional hinaki at designated mahinga kai sites
Wai Tapu & Noa
Attribute: Freedom from sensitive wastes that create tapu restrictions
Band A: Tapu has been restored to noa—no sensitive wastes hinder tangata whenua from undertaking customary practices at any time
Measurement: Mapping of rāhui and assessment of waste discharge impacts
Site Access
Attribute: Access and protection of mahinga kai sites
Band A: 100% of mahinga kai freshwater sites, areas, and routes can be safely accessed by tangata whenua and are protected against unauthorized use
Measurement: Percentage of sites accessible and protected through formal mechanisms
Target Attribute States
Setting Targets
Target attribute states (TAS) represent the state of the attribute that needs to be achieved to meet associated objectives, outcomes, values and visions. For mahinga kai, TAS must be set at or above the baseline state.
Every target attribute state must specify a timeframe for achievement. If timeframes are long-term, interim target attribute states must be set for intervals of not more than 10 years to assess progress.
Key Considerations
  • Should be aspirational but achievable
  • Reflect multi-generational planning horizons
  • Consider practical constraints to achievement
  • May vary between waterbodies based on conditions
  • Should aim for continuous improvement
Applying a Te Ao Māori Worldview
A te ao Māori worldview is holistic in nature, acknowledging the interconnectedness of all living things. Mātauranga Māori goes back further than statistical sampling in New Zealand, based on ongoing observation informed by the maramataka Māori rather than representative samples at specific points in time.
Aggregate Attributes
Overall mauri or health scores supported by multiple non-indigenous and mātauranga Māori sub-attributes
Holistic Integration
Weaving together resource abundance and health with customs, practices, and practical impediments
Complementary Approaches
Both non-indigenous science and mātauranga Māori have roles to play and add value to developing attributes
Cultural Baseline
Knowledge from kuia, kaumātua and pūkenga provides distinct relational insight into past, present, and future
Limits and Action Plans
Councils will work towards target attribute states for mahinga kai values through three key ways: preparing action plans, identifying limits on resource use as rules in regional plans, and imposing conditions on resource consents.
Short-term Actions
Catchment management plans being developed, waterbodies named with Māori names, riparian margins fenced, planting initiated, spawning sites improved, fish passage provided for highest risk barriers, important sites identified.
Medium-term Actions
Catchment plans completed and actions underway, all riparian margins fenced where intensive grazing occurs, extensive planting, wetlands created to treat pollution, important cultural sites protected, access provided, substantial pest control implemented.
Long-term Actions
Catchment plan actions evolving based on monitoring, improved navigation, access to mahinga kai sites for day-to-day customs, land-legal issues resolved, all rivers planted and fenced, cultural monitoring with intergenerational knowledge transmission.
Engaging with Tangata Whenua
Authentic collaboration and partnership between tangata whenua and councils is crucial. This requires working within both te ao Māori and Crown frameworks, recognizing and respecting each other's unique roles.
Enable Tangata Whenua Leadership
Mātauranga Māori resides with tangata whenua. Mahinga kai values are underpinned by Te Mana o te Wai principles of mana whakahaere, kaitiakitanga, and manaakitanga. Create opportunities for tangata whenua to lead mahinga kai assessments, attribute development, monitoring, and action plan components.
Build Relationships First
The starting point is always developing respectful and trusting relationships. Create opportunities through allocated funding or FTEs to build relationships. Meet at venues chosen by tangata whenua, conduct wānanga in a manner consistent with tikanga Māori, and allow adequate time for culturally appropriate processes.
Respect Data Sovereignty
Tangata whenua have sovereignty over their mātauranga, data, and tikanga. Establish processes and mechanisms that safeguard sensitive mātauranga, intellectual property, and information that mana whenua want protected. Address data sovereignty upfront in the engagement process.
Provide Adequate Resourcing
Allocate sufficient funding for authentic engagement. Resource tangata whenua expert input appropriately, recognizing the significant time and effort required. Support tangata whenua to create capacity to engage through funding or other resources.
Step-by-Step Engagement Process
1
Step 1: Identify Parties (2-3 months)
Determine who needs to be talking to whom. Include tangata whenua rangatira, appointed representatives, flax-roots practitioners, mātauranga Māori experts, and council senior leadership with appropriate kaimahi.
2
Step 2: Develop Relationships (3-6 months)
Build trust through whakawhanaungatanga. Understand each other's roles, obligations, and constraints. Create a safe working environment that respects tikanga and enables authentic partnership.
3
Step 3: Co-develop Framework (4-6 months)
Work together to develop engagement plans, establish working groups, agree on communication platforms, plan for wānanga and hui, determine resourcing needs, and establish data sharing protocols.
4
Step 4: Technical Work (6-12 months)
Undertake mapping wānanga, develop attributes and target attribute states, identify limits and action plans, establish monitoring approaches, and integrate mātauranga Māori throughout.
5
Step 5: Implementation (Ongoing)
Implement action plans, conduct monitoring, report on progress, adapt approaches based on results, and maintain relationships through continued engagement and partnership.
Tools for Implementation
Several tools are provided to support tangata whenua and councils in implementing mahinga kai. These are options to consider—tangata whenua and councils may wish to develop their own approaches and solutions.
Exploring Mahinga Kai
Flow charts and infographics to facilitate discovery phase discussions, explain how attributes work as indicators, and improve understanding of mahinga kai values and relationships.
Visualizing Mahinga Kai
Annotated photo collages illustrating connections and relationships, showing the range of mahinga kai resources, and demonstrating ki uta ki tai interconnectedness of waterbodies.
Mapping Impacts
Tools to identify visible impacts (species threats, water quality, hydrological alteration, land impacts) and invisible impacts (planning/regulation, access restrictions, knowledge loss).
Mapping Wānanga
Structured process for undertaking mapping wānanga with tangata whenua to identify mahinga kai values, attributes, important places, practices, resources, and opportunities for improvement.
Selecting Attributes
Practical approaches for working towards a manageable set of attributes that collectively achieve mahinga kai objectives while being measurable and implementable.
Existing Tools
Assessment of existing te ao Māori framework tools including Cultural Health Index, Mauri Model, Wai Ora Wai Māori, and others that may be applicable to implementing mahinga kai.
Mātauranga Māori and Data Sovereignty
Protecting Indigenous Knowledge
Mātauranga Māori is a taonga. When shared, it is a gift and should be safeguarded and treated with respect. Tangata whenua have sovereignty over their mātauranga, data, and tikanga.
Mahinga kai 'data' is different from conventional datasets. Rich repositories of mātauranga Māori include whakapapa, mōteatea, waiata, whakairo, pūrākau, and maramataka—many of which are narrative in nature and are robust, repeatable and transparent in their own right.
Key Principles
  • Control: Māori have inherent rights to exercise control over Māori data and data ecosystems
  • Jurisdiction: Māori data should be stored in Aotearoa New Zealand whenever possible
  • Self-determination: Māori have rights to data that enables sustainable self-determination
  • Ethics: Tikanga, kawa, and mātauranga Māori should underpin data protection and use
Monitoring Mahinga Kai
The NPS-FM 2020 requires regional councils to establish methods for monitoring progress towards achieving target attribute states and environmental outcomes. Methods must include measures of mātauranga Māori and the health of indigenous flora and fauna.
Why Cultural Monitoring?
Mahinga kai monitoring methods are best led by tangata whenua because mahinga kai environmental outcomes are about Māori relationships and connections with waterbodies. Cultural monitoring provides insights that conventional monitoring cannot capture.
Monitoring Components
Monitoring should track progress against attribute states, delivery of management methods and action plans, achievement of resource use limits, and contribution toward long-term visions and environmental outcomes.
Integration Approach
Cultural monitoring should be supported by monitoring of other NOF values and attributes where relevant. Collaborate with councils where synergies align, particularly for NPS-FM 2020 monitoring and reporting requirements.
Reporting Methods
Report cards and other visual reporting tools can effectively communicate progress to communities and tangata whenua, showing trends over time and highlighting areas requiring attention.
Building Capability and Capacity
Implementing mahinga kai requires significant capability development for both tangata whenua and councils. Success depends on adequate resourcing, appropriate skills, and effective partnerships.
2024
Implementation Deadline
Regional councils must include mahinga kai in regional plans by December 2024, requiring urgent capability building.
20+
Existing Tools
Over 20 te ao Māori framework assessment tools available to support mahinga kai implementation.
100%
Tangata Whenua Leadership
Mahinga kai implementation should be tangata whenua-led, with councils providing enabling support.
Key capability gaps include understanding of te ao Māori worldviews, practical experience with mātauranga Māori integration, knowledge of mahinga kai customs and practices, and skills in cultural monitoring approaches. Addressing these gaps requires investment in training, relationship building, and creating opportunities for knowledge exchange between tangata whenua and councils.
Moving Forward Together
Success Factors
  • Authentic partnership and collaboration
  • Tangata whenua-led processes
  • Adequate resourcing and capacity
  • Integration of mātauranga Māori
  • Respect for data sovereignty
  • Long-term commitment
  • Flexibility and adaptation
What Success Looks Like
Success in implementing mahinga kai means tangata whenua can harvest and collect enough kai and resources to sustain themselves, can access mahinga kai sites, and water bodies are restored to sustain mahinga kai. It means contact with water heals rather than harms, collecting and sharing kai is part of family life, and tangata whenua from kaumātua to mokopuna harvest kai in the ways of their tīpuna.
Success means tangata whenua take care of the wai by being integral to decision-making, can observe positive change through their kaitiaki work, and wāhi taonga are known, protected, accessible, with their mana, mauri, and tapu restored and in balance.

Mō tātou ā, mō ngā uri ā muri ake nei - For us and our children after us. This kete provides tools for both technical and practical aspects of implementing mahinga kai, offering timely guidance to assist tangata whenua and councils in successful collaboration toward restoring and protecting mahinga kai for future generations.
References
This comprehensive freshwater monitoring and management plan builds upon decades of research, development, and practical application of mātauranga Māori-based environmental assessment methodologies. The following references represent the foundational work that underpins the Mauri Compass System and its application to freshwater management.
Academic and Technical References
Benson, M., McKay, A-M., Ruru, M., Ruru, R., & Ruru, I.H. (2020). Te Rūnanga o Ngāti Mutunga Mauri Compass assessment of the Urenui River and the Mimitangiatua River. Prepared for Te Wai Māori Trust and Te Rūnanga o Ngāti Mutunga, Urenui, NZ. Available online
Haywood, C., Manawa, R., & Ruru, I. (2023). A Preliminary Mauri Compass Assessment of the Mangawherawhera Catchment. Ātihau Whanganui for Te Wai Māori Trust, Ohakune, NZ. Available online
Ruru, P.B. (2004). Whanau a Kai, Te Aitanga a Mahaki customary eel fisheries: Lake Repongaere. Ministry of Fisheries, Wellington.
Ruru, I.H. (2006). Te Aitanga a Mahaki environmental inventory and iwi planning document. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington.
Ruru, I.H. (2008). Biology of a fin fish – NZ Freshwater Eel Species. Seafood Industry Training Organisation, Wellington.
Ruru, I.H. (2017a). Respect and dignity: A cultural assessment for separating mortuary by‑products from the Gisborne municipal sewage system. Te Runanga o Tūranganui a Kiwa, Gisborne.
Ruru, I.H. (2017b). Water quality measuring methods case study. Mauri Compass: Methods and application within the National Policy Statement for Freshwater.
Ruru, I.H. (2018). Assessing the mauri of the Waipaoa River using the Mauri Compass. Te Wai Māori Trust. Project info
Ruru, I.H. (2019a). A mātauranga Māori assessment of the mauri of the Makauri Aquifer. Te Aitanga a Māhaki, Gisborne District Council.
Ruru, I.H. (2019b). The Mauri Compass – A mātauranga Māori tool for assessing the mauri of water. Version 1.0. Available online
Ruru, I.H., & Chisnall, B.L; Ruru, P.B. (2004). Whanau a Kai, Te Aitanga a Mahaki customary eel fisheries: Lake Repongaere. Ministry of Fisheries.
Ruru, I.H., & Chisnall, B.L; Ruru, P.B. (2007). Te Aitanga a Mahaki management of customary eel fisheries. Ministry of Fisheries. Available online
Ruru, I.H., & Chisnall, B.L; Ruru, P.B. (2008). Taharoa Lakes customary eel fisheries. Ministry of Fisheries.
Ruru, I.H., & Dunn, A. (2017). Tūranganui a Kiwa water quality enhancement project – Scoping report.
Ruru, I.H., Farmer, R., Barber, A., Pere, J., & Smith, M. (2017). A cultural framework for addressing wastewater management in Turanganui a Kiwa.
Ruru, I.H., Kanz, W., Afoa, E., Clarke, C., Nutsford, D., et al. (2022). A kete for implementing mahinga kai within the National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management. Available Online.
Ruru, I.H., Kanz, W.A., Farmer, R., Pere, J., Toroa, K., et al. (2020). Council wastewater overflows in wet weather storm events and in dry weather: Report on Tangata Whenua engagement.
Ruru, P.B. (2007). Upstream migration of glass eels in the Waipaoa River. Prepared for Te Wai Māori Trust
Westerhoff, R., McDowell, R., Brasington, J., Hamer, M., Muraoka, K., et al. (2021). Towards Implementation of Robust Monitoring Technologies alongside Freshwater Improvement Policy in Aotearoa New Zealand. Environmental Science and Policy. Available online
Climate Resilience and Pine Plantation Impacts
Bloomberg, M., Cairns, E., Du, D., Palmer, H., & Perry, C. (2019). Alternatives to clearfelling for harvesting of radiata pine plantations on erosion-susceptible land. New Zealand Journal of Forestry, 64(2), 23-29.
Phillips, C., Betts, H., Smith, H.G., & Tsyplenkov, A. (2024). Exploring the post-harvest 'window of vulnerability' to landslides in New Zealand steepland plantation forests. Ecological Engineering, 206, 107300.
Nghiem, N., & Tran, H. (2016). The biodiversity benefits and opportunity costs of plantation forest management: A modelling case study of Pinus radiata in New Zealand. Forest Policy and Economics, 73, 55-64.
Ministry for Primary Industries. (2021). Transitioning Exotic Plantations to Native Forest: A Report on the State of Knowledge. MPI Technical Paper No: 2021/22. Wellington: Te Uru Rākau.
Te Uru Rākau. (2019). New Zealand Forest Industry Facts & Figures 2018/2019. Wellington: New Zealand Forest Service.
Mead, D.J. (2013). Sustainable management of Pinus radiata plantations. FAO Forestry Paper No. 170. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.